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Journal of Clinical Microbiology, September 1999, p. 3055-3058, Vol. 37, No. 9
Laboratoire de
Virologie1 and Service de
Pédiatrie 2,
Received 20 January 1999/Returned for modification 19 April
1999/Accepted 14 June 1999
Group A rotaviruses, human caliciviruses, astroviruses, and
adenovirus types 40 and 41 were detected by enzyme immunoassay or
reverse transcription-PCR in 61, 14, 6, and 3% of stool specimens from
414 children consulting for gastroenteritis between 1995 and 1998. These data highlight the importance of caliciviruses in infantile
gastroenteritis. Among these, Norwalk-like viruses belonging to
genogroup II were predominant.
In industrialized countries, acute
infectious diarrhea is a major cause of morbidity in infants and young
children which represents a large burden in terms of medical and
indirect costs (4, 12). Group A rotaviruses are recognized
as the major etiologic agent (12), and astroviruses and
adenovirus types 40 and 41 have been detected with prevalence rates
ranging from 2.5 to 9% and from 3 to 9%, respectively, in young
children with gastroenteritis (5, 8, 13). Human
caliciviruses include two groups of viruses associated with
gastroenteritis, the Norwalk-like and the Sapporo-like viruses. The
latter have been found primarily in young children (2, 17),
and excretion rates have ranged from 0.2 to 6.6% (17).
Norwalk-like viruses, which are further divided into two genogroups,
represented by the Norwalk virus and the Snow Mountain agent, have long
been recognized as an important cause of acute gastroenteritis in
adults and school-age children. Although they have been described
recently in young children with gastroenteritis in industrialized
countries (15, 16, 18), their relative importance in
infantile severe or mild gastroenteritis compared to that of the other
viruses has seldom been evaluated by sensitive new assays
(23).
In France, according to data from the "Sentinelle system," more
than 3 million people (3), among them adults and children, consult a doctor every year for acute diarrhea, with an epidemic peak
occurring during winter. While it has been reported that rotavirus was
the most prevalent agent associated with gastroenteritis in
hospitalized children (9), the prevalence of the other
viruses has yet to be investigated. Moreover, there has been no report about the molecular epidemiology of such viruses.
Stool samples from 414 infants and children consulting a pediatrician
in a private outpatient clinic in Dijon or the outpatients' department
of the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire for gastrointestinal symptoms
were collected from December 1995 to February 1998. When hospitalization was required, stool specimens were collected within 48 h of hospitalization. The average and median ages were
available for 381 of the 414 children and were 15.5 months (range, 0 to 158 months; standard deviation, 21.8) and 8 months, respectively. The
33 remaining children were under the age of 3 years. Clinical features
were documented for 348 children. In addition, 50 stool samples from
control subjects attending a day care center or hospitalized for a
cause other than gastroenteritis were also collected in the last
3-month period of the study, from December 1997 to February 1998. For
all the controls, the absence of gastrointestinal symptoms was checked
during the week preceding and the week following stool sample collection.
Group A rotaviruses were detected by an enzyme immunoassay (EIA)
using group-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) as previously described (22). For control subjects, stools were
systematically tested by both EIA and reverse transcription (RT)-PCR.
RNA was extracted from 10 to 25% stool suspensions in
phosphate-buffered saline with a QIA Amp Viral RNA kit (Qiagen, Hilden,
Germany), and RT-PCR was performed as described by Gouvea et al.
(6).
Caliciviruses were detected by RT-PCR using four primer sets in
separate reactions, allowing the detection of Norwalk-like and
Sapporo-like viruses. RT-PCR was performed as described previously (11). The degenerate primer NVp110 described by Le Guyader
et al. (14) was used for RT together with NVp36, NVp69
(24), SR48-50-52 (1), and NI (7) were
used for PCR. The PCR products were sequenced with the ABI Prism Dye
Terminator Cycle Sequencing Ready Reaction Kit on an automated
sequencer (model 373A DNA Sequencing System) (both from Applied
Biosystems, Perkin-Elmer).
Astroviruses and adenoviruses 40 and 41 were detected with an EIA kit
(IDEIA Astrovirus; Dako Diagnostics, Ltd.) (Adenoclone type 40/41 EIA;
Meridian Diagnostics Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio). For astrovirus, positive
samples were further confirmed by RT-PCR according to the method
described by Mitchell et al. (19).
Statistical analysis was performed with EPI-INFO version 6.02 software
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga., and World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1994). Cornfield's method
was used to estimate 95% confidence intervals. We used a nonparametric
Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance test to compare means when
Bartlett's chi-square test showed the variances in different samples
to differ, and we used the Yates corrected chi-square test for simple
analysis. All statistical analysis was performed with a level of
significance of 0.05.
Among the 414 stool specimens from patients with gastrointestinal
symptoms, 299 (72.2%) contained at least one of the four viruses,
whereas no virus could be detected in the 115 remaining samples
(27.8%). Among the 50 stool specimens from control subjects, 5 (10%)
contained at least one of the four viruses and no virus could be
detected in the 45 remaining samples (90%).
Of the 414 stool specimens from children with gastroenteritis, group A
rotaviruses were detected in 252 (60.8%), human caliciviruses in 58 (14%), astroviruses in 26 (6.3%), and adenovirus types 40 and 41 in
13 (3.1%) (Fig. 1). Caliciviruses and
adenovirus types 40 and 41 were never detected in stool specimens from
the 50 controls (Fig. 1). Astroviruses were detected in 1 sample (2%)
by both EIA and RT-PCR, and group A rotaviruses were detected in 5 samples (10%) by EIA but in 13 (26%) by RT-PCR, among which 4 samples gave equivocal results by EIA.
Dual infections were found in 50 of the 299 positive samples (16.7%).
The majority of these (94%) were combinations of rotavirus with one of
the other three viruses (Fig. 2). One
dual infection of rotavirus and astrovirus was also observed among the
controls.
0095-1137/99/$04.00+0
Copyright © 1999, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
Prevalence of Group A Rotavirus, Human Calicivirus,
Astrovirus, and Adenovirus Type 40 and 41 Infections among Children
with Acute Gastroenteritis in Dijon, France
ABSTRACT
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FIG. 1.
Percentages of stool specimens from children with
gastrointestinal symptoms and from controls in which group A rotavirus,
human calicivirus, astrovirus, or enteric adenovirus type 40 or 41 was
detected. *, detection rates for children with symptoms add up to more
than 72% (the percent virus-positive samples) because of dual
infections. 
, for controls, rotavirus was detected by RT-PCR as well
as by EIA. Thirteen of the 50 stool specimens (26%) were positive.
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FIG. 2.
Dual infections were found in 50 of the 299 positive
samples (16.7%). Each bar represents all the positive samples for one
given virus. The relative proportions of monoinfections and of dual
infections with each of the other three viruses are shown.
The distribution according to age groups for 381 of the 414 children is shown in Fig. 3. The average ages for rotavirus, calicivirus, astrovirus, and adenovirus type 40 and 41 infections were 11, 14.8, 34, and 15 months, respectively, while the median ages were 8, 8, 10, and 11.5 months. There was no statistically significant difference among the four viruses. Some of the rotavirus, calicivirus, and astrovirus detections, 5, 6, and 10%, respectively, occurred in neonates.
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Clinical features were documented for 348 children with gastroenteritis
(84%). Of these, 256 were positive for virus and 92 were negative.
Results are presented in Table 1. Bloody
diarrhea (P < 0.001) and abdominal pain (P = 0.016) were less frequent in children with viral
gastroenteritis, and vomiting (P < 0.001) was more
frequent among them, than among children whose samples were negative
for virus. In contrast, there was no difference in diarrhea and fever
between the two populations. Then we compared clinical symptoms
observed with the different viruses (Table
2). Dual infections were excluded from
the analysis, and adenovirus monoinfections were excluded because of
the small size of this group (two patients). Only diarrhea
(P < 0.001) and fever (P = 0.049) were
statistically significantly different among the three viruses; these
symptoms were more frequent during rotavirus infections. Finally, there
was no statistically significant difference between monoinfections and
dual infections (data not shown).
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To investigate the variability of the strains of human calciviruses
detected over the 27-month period, the amplified products obtained from
19 specimens were sequenced and the 100-bp region located at positions
4755 to 4854 (open reading frame 1 [ORF1]) was aligned with known
sequences (Table 3). Two strains were shown to belong to genogroup I and 17 were shown to belong to genogroup
II of the Norwalk group of viruses. None of the 19 strains were related
to Sapporo virus. Among the two genogroup I strains, one was related to
Southampton virus and the other to the USC 92B strain (20).
Both were found at the beginning of the study and were never detected
later. The 17 genogroup II strains could be categorized in two
clusters, with 8 strains related to Bristol virus and 9 related to
Toronto virus. Strains belonging to the two clusters cocirculated
during the whole period of the study.
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In a general manner, our study shows good agreement with previous studies reporting detection rates of group A rotavirus, astrovirus, and adenovirus type 40 and 41 infections in children with gastroenteritis in industrialized countries (5, 8, 12, 13). There is a lack of studies evaluating, with sensitive, broadly reactive assays, the relative proportion of human calicivirus infections in young children compared to infections with the other three viruses. Here, we found a high frequency of calicivirus (14%) in stools from children with gastroenteritis compared to that for the controls (0%). The use of the sensitive RT-PCR and of four primer pairs for each sample, rather than a particular epidemiological situation, may explain this result. The average and median ages were 14.8 and 8 months, respectively, and were not different from those observed for the other viruses.
Sequencing of a 100-bp region of the RNA polymerase gene for 19 strains of human calicivirus showed a clear predominance of Norwalk-like viruses belonging to genogroup II (17 of 19) in Dijon during this period. Genogroup II strains have been reported in young children with gastroenteritis in different countries, including Japan (18) and Canada (15, 16), and a high prevalence of antibodies to the Mexico strain (genogroup II) was reported in London (21): more than 70% of children had antibodies to this strain by the age of 2 years, compared to 12% with antibodies to the Norwalk virus (genogroup I).
The systematic detection of the four viruses allowed us to observe a high percentage of dual infections among positive samples (16.7%), the majority of which were combinations of rotavirus and one of the other three viruses. Dual infections raise the question of whether a single virus is responsible for illness or whether two viruses act in synergy. As was previously observed (10), there was no statistically significant difference in clinical symptoms between monoinfections and dual infections.
In conclusion, this is the first report of astrovirus and human calicivirus infections in the pediatric population in France. It highlights the importance of human caliciviruses and particularly of Norwalk-like viruses in infantile gastroenteritis and conveys information about the molecular epidemiology of such viruses in France.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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We thank F. le Guyader (Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ifremer, Nantes, France) for technical advice on calicivirus detection. We are also grateful to M. Martres (Clinique Ste-Marthe, Dijon, France) and to J. F. James and J. R. Maurin (Laboratoire St-Michel, Dijon, France) for assistance with stool sample collection, to V. Boggio for inclusion of the controls to J. B. Gouyon (Service de Pédiatrie 2, CHU, Dijon, France) for permission to consult medical files, and to S. Dalle for critical reading of the manuscript.
This work was supported by the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire of Dijon, France.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Microbiologie Médicale et Moléculaire, Facultés de Médecine et Pharmacie, 7 Bd Jeanne d'Arc, 21034 Dijon, France. Phone: 33 3 80 29 34 37. Fax: 33 3 80 29 36 04. E-mail: Evelyne.Kohli{at}u-bourgogne.fr.
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Journal of Clinical Microbiology, September 1999, p. 3055-3058, Vol. 37, No. 9
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Copyright © 1999, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
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Schnagl, R. D., Belfrage, K., Farrington, R., Hutchinson, K., Lewis, V., Erlich, J., Morey, F.
(2002). Incidence of Human Astrovirus in Central Australia (1995 to 1998) and Comparison of Deduced Serotypes Detected from 1981 to 1998. J. Clin. Microbiol.
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Chikhi-Brachet, R., Bon, F., Toubiana, L., Pothier, P., Nicolas, J.-C., Flahault, A., Kohli, E.
(2002). Virus Diversity in a Winter Epidemic of Acute Diarrhea in France. J. Clin. Microbiol.
40: 4266-4272
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Roman, E., Negredo, A., Dalton, R. M., Wilhelmi, I., Sanchez-Fauquier, A.
(2002). Molecular Detection of Human Calicivirus among Spanish Children with Acute Gastroenteritis. J. Clin. Microbiol.
40: 3857-3859
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Buesa, J., Collado, B., Lopez-Andujar, P., Abu-Mallouh, R., Rodriguez Diaz, J., Garcia Diaz, A., Prat, J., Guix, S., Llovet, T., Prats, G., Bosch, A.
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40: 2854-2859
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Guix, S., Caballero, S., Villena, C., Bartolome, R., Latorre, C., Rabella, N., Simo, M., Bosch, A., Pinto, R. M.
(2002). Molecular Epidemiology of Astrovirus Infection in Barcelona, Spain. J. Clin. Microbiol.
40: 133-139
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Kirkwood, C. D., Bishop, R. F.
(2001). Molecular Detection of Human Calicivirus in Young Children Hospitalized with Acute Gastroenteritis in Melbourne, Australia, during 1999. J. Clin. Microbiol.
39: 2722-2724
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Atmar, R. L., Estes, M. K.
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Medina, S. M., Gutierrez, M. F., Liprandi, F., Ludert, J. E.
(2000). Identification and Type Distribution of Astroviruses among Children with Gastroenteritis in Colombia and Venezuela. J. Clin. Microbiol.
38: 3481-3483
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Le Guyader, F., Haugarreau, L., Miossec, L., Dubois, E., Pommepuy, M.
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Bon, F., Fromantin, C., Aho, S., Pothier, P., Kohli, E., The Azay Group,
(2000). G and P Genotyping of Rotavirus Strains Circulating in France over a Three-Year Period: Detection of G9 and P[6] Strains at Low Frequencies. J. Clin. Microbiol.
38: 1681-1683
[Abstract] [Full Text]
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