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Journal of Clinical Microbiology, May 2002, p. 1791-1797, Vol. 40, No. 5
0095-1137/02/$04.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/JCM.40.5.1791-1797.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Development and Application of a New Scheme for Typing Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli by PCR-Based Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis

Feng Shi,1* Yuen Yuen Chen,1 Trudy M. Wassenaar,2 Walter H. Woods,3 Peter J. Coloe,1 and Benjamin N. Fry1

Department of Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne, Victoria 3083,1 School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia,3 Molecular Microbiology and Genomics Consultants, Zotzenheim, Germany2

Received 28 November 2001/ Returned for modification 10 January 2002/ Accepted 3 March 2002


   ABSTRACT
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
A molecular typing approach for Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli was developed with restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of a 9.6-kb PCR-amplified portion of the lipopolysaccharide gene cluster. Sixty-one Penner serotype reference strains were analyzed with this new genotyping scheme, and 32 genogroups were found. Eleven additional genogroups were obtained from 87 clinical C. jejuni strains tested. This molecular typing method shows a correlation with the Penner heat-stable serotyping method, a phenotypic typing method based on lipopolysaccharide structures that is often used as a "gold standard" for subtyping Campylobacter spp. This strong correlation suggests that the data obtained can be directly compared with epidemiological data collected in the past by classical serotyping of C. jejuni and C. coli. In contrast to the high percentage of nontypeability by phenotyping, this molecular typing method results in 100% typeability and provides a superior alternative to serotyping.


   INTRODUCTION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli are recognized as two of the most common causes of food-borne bacterial gastroenteritis. Furthermore, C. jejuni has been implicated as a frequent antecedent to the development of the neurologic diseases Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) (20) and Miller Fisher syndrome (37).

Numerous subtyping methods have been developed to differentiate Campylobacter strains for epidemiologic purposes in the past two decades. More than 30 current typing methods have been reviewed elsewhere (27, 28, 29, 38). The various typing systems can be placed in two categories: phenotypic methods, which are based on expressed features such as somatic antigens or enzymatic activity, and genotypic methods, which are based on specific molecular features of chromosomal or plasmid DNA.

Two serotyping schemes have been used exclusively for phenotypic typing in the past, the scheme developed by Penner and Hennessy, which detects heat-stable (HS) antigens (31), and the one developed by Lior et al., which detects heat-labile antigens (16). The former is the most widely accepted and well evaluated phenotypic method. The molecular basis for the HS antigenic diversity in C. jejuni and C. coli is the expression of somatic (O) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (17, 18, 21, 22, 33, 34, 35). LPS is a major constituent of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria and comprises three covalently linked regions: lipid A, core oligosaccharide (inner core and outer core), and O polysaccharide. The variability of the Campylobacter LPS outer core and O polysaccharide is thought to contribute to the antigenic basis of the Penner serotyping system. Serotyping methods like these are time consuming and technically demanding, and antisera are costly to produce, which limits the use of these typing systems to specialized diagnostic laboratories. Furthermore, phenotypes can be unstable, resulting in nonreproducible results or nontypeable strains as well as antiserum cross-reactivity, which hampers the interpretation. Genotyping methods are independent of expressed features and are therefore a better alternative for typing. Several genotyping methods have recently been developed, such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (11, 12, 40), amplified fragment length polymorphism (5, 15), flagella gene PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) (1, 4, 23, 24, 26), ribotyping (6, 25, 36), and random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis (7, 10, 30). These genotyping systems are more generally available and applicable than phenotypic methods. However, most of these techniques still have their own drawbacks, such as less discriminatory power, poor reproducibility, and complex methodology. The preferred method in terms of handling, costs, and time, is RFLP analysis of PCR products. Such a method has been described for the flagellin genes (23, 26). However, when this method was applied, no correlation could be detected between flagellin genotypes and HS serotypes (23). This greatly reduces the application of flagellin genotyping in long-term epidemiological studies. More importantly, none of these methods correlate well with the serotyping scheme used in past decades, so historical epidemiological trends cannot be determined. For these reasons, genotypic subtyping methods have not been widely used in epidemiological practice and remain to be developed and improved.

The LPS biosynthesis gene cluster of C. jejuni 81116 has recently been characterized in our laboratory (9). In this study, a new genotyping scheme, the LG (LPS genes) genotyping system, which is based on PCR-RFLP of this gene cluster, has been established. The application value of this new system was also evaluated by typing the reference Penner serotype strains and a number of C. jejuni and C. coli clinical isolates. This typing scheme is the first genotyping scheme to our knowledge that has the same molecular basis as the Penner serotyping scheme.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Bacterial strains and growth conditions. The strains used in this study are listed in Table 1.


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  		TABLE 1. Bacterial strains used in this study

 
Cultures were stored at -70°C in heart infusion broth (Difco) containing 50% glycerol. Bacteria were grown on Columbia agar (Oxoid) supplemented with 5% (vol/vol) defibrinated horse blood and Campylobacter selective supplement (Skirrow) (Oxoid) for 48 h at 42°C under microaerophilic conditions (CO2, 10.5%; O2, 5%; balance, N2).

Chromosomal DNA preparation. DNA was isolated from pure cultures by the cetyltrimethylammonium procedure (3). Briefly, one lawn plate of Campylobacter was grown overnight, harvested in 9.4 ml of Tris-EDTA buffer and 0.1 ml of 0.5 M EDTA, and lysed with 0.5 ml of 10% (wt/vol) sodium dodecyl sulfate. Proteinase K was added to a final concentration of 0.1 mg/ml, and the mixture was incubated at 37°C for 2 h. Then 1.8 ml of 5 M NaCl and 1.5 ml of 10% (wt/vol) cetyltrimethylammonium in 0.7 M NaCl were added, and the mixture was incubated for 30 min at 65°C. After the addition of 5 ml of 24:1 chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, the mixture was centrifuged for 10 min at 4°C. The aqueous layer was removed, and 5 ml of 25:24:1 phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol was added. The aqueous layer was removed after centrifugation. The DNA was precipitated with a 0.6-volume of isopropanol and dissolved in water. The concentration of the DNA was measured by spectrophotometric absorbance at 260 nm.

Gene distribution analysis. The gene distribution of the wla cluster was analyzed by PCR. Primer sets used for amplification of the individual genes in the wla cluster are given in Table 2. PCR was performed in a 50-µl reaction volume with a Perkin Elmer GeneAMP 2400 thermal cycler. The reaction mixtures consisted of 1x reaction buffer with 2.0 mM MgSO4 (Promega), 2.5 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Promega), 100 ng of forward and reverse primer, 0.2 mM concentrations of deoxynucleoside triphosphates, and 100 ng of template DNA. The reaction included an initial denaturation of DNA at 94°C for 1 min and then 35 cycles of consecutive denaturation (30 s, 94°C), primer annealing (30 s, 60°C), and chain extension (based on a rate of 1 kb/minute, 72°C). A final elongation step was performed for 10 min at 72°C.


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  		TABLE 2. Primers used for gene distribution analysis and PCR-RFLP

 
Penner serotyping. Penner serotypes of Campylobacter spp. were detected by using the passive hemagglutination technique described by Penner and Hennessy (31), with a heated supernatant from the bacterial culture as the antigen. Antisera were prepared by injecting rabbits intravenously with saline bacterial suspensions of Campylobacter serostrains. Some antisera were absorbed with cross-reacting HS reference strains to clarify the serotyping results; in particular, antiserum prepared against HS-4 was absorbed with HS-16 bacteria to remove minor reactions with HS-13 and HS-16.

PCR-RFLP analysis. The primers galE1 and wlaH3 (Table 2) were used to amplify a 9.6-kb fragment. PCRs were performed as stated above except that a MgSO4 concentration of 2.0 mM was used with 2.5 U of Pfu DNA polymerase (Promega) instead of Taq and a chain extension of 15 min at 72°C per cycle. After amplification, 10 µl of PCR product was digested with 10 U of restriction enzymes (HhaI and NlaIII [New England Biolabs] and DdeI and HindIII [Promega]) in a total volume of 20 µl with 2 µg of bovine serum albumin for more than 3 h at 37°C. The digest was analyzed by electrophoresis by using a 1.5% agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide. Lambda DNA digested with PstI was used as a reference size marker.


   RESULTS
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Amplification analysis of LPS gene cluster. All 12 genes in the wla cluster were tested for their distribution among selected reference serotype C. jejuni strains. In order to detect duplications, gene order rearrangements, or deletions, PCR amplification was carried out for each single gene as well as across two genes that were found adjacent in the wla cluster of C. jejuni 81116. Primers used in the distribution analysis were designed from the published sequence of the LPS gene cluster from C. jejuni 81116 (9) and listed in Table 2. The individual genes were amplified by primers designed within the gene; for example, the galE gene was analyzed by the primer pair galE1-galE2. Two adjacent genes were analyzed by a primer combination of the upstream primer of the upstream gene and the downstream primer of the downstream gene; for example, the adjacent genes galE and wlaB were amplified by the primer pair galE1-wlaB2. All of the 12 genes were detected in the 12 C. jejuni strains investigated (data not shown), which indicated that the genes in the wla cluster were conserved among C. jejuni serotype reference strains. Of the 12 strains tested, 7 strains gave a PCR fragment of 2.3 kb with primers wlaI1 and wlaK2, which was compared to the 1.7-kb fragment obtained for the other strains (data not shown). This indicated that an extra fragment, possibly carrying a gene, is present between the wlaI and the wlaK genes in these strains. A gene named wlaJ was described at this position by Wood et al. (39) in 54% of C. jejuni isolates. The highly conserved nature of the wla gene cluster in C. jejuni makes it a suitable target for the development of a gene typing system.

Of the 12 genes in the wla cluster, the galE and wlaH genes are most similar to genes found in other gram-negative bacteria, with >52 and >53% amino acid similarity, respectively (9). Therefore, it was reasoned that these genes would be the most conserved within C. jejuni strains. Sequence alignment of the galE gene from three C. jejuni strains showed that, indeed, the galE gene is very conserved among C. jejuni strains (Fig. 1a). Also, the wlaH gene was found to be conserved when aligning this gene with five C. jejuni strains (Fig. 1b). The most conserved regions within the galE and the wlaH genes were used to design the primers galE1 and wlaH3 to amplify part of the LPS gene cluster (Fig. 1). These two primers gave a 9.6-kb product when used in a PCR, which spans eight genes in the wla cluster. All 61 reference Penner serotype Campylobacter strains were tested and gave the expected products (data not shown).



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  		FIG. 1. (a) Sequence alignment analysis of part of the galE gene from C. jejuni 81116 (HS-6) (9), C. jejuni 11168gp (HS-2) (Sanger Centre website [ftp://ftp.sanger.ac.uk/pub/pathogens/cj/]), and C. jejuni HB9313 (HS-19) (unpublished data). (b) Sequence alignment analysis of part of the wlaH gene from C. jejuni 81116 (HS-6), C. jejuni 11351 (HS-23) (39), C. jejuni 11168gp (HS-2), C. jejuni 11168db (HS-2) (39), and C. jejuni HB9313 (HS-19). The bold characters indicate the primer sequences. The arrows indicate the orientation of the primers.

 
The use of strongly conserved genes increases the risk that other species would be detected by the PCR. Therefore, we tested the cross-reactivity of the PCR primers on other bacteria within or outside the Campylobacter genus. No PCR products could be obtained from the DNA of Campylobacter lari, Campylobacter hyoilei, Campylobacter hyointestinalis, Campylobacter sputorum, Campylobacter fetus, and Campylobacter upsaliensis or from the DNA of the enterobacteria Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The result remained negative when the annealing temperature was lowered to 58°C (data not shown). This indicates that this typing scheme is specific for C. jejuni and C. coli.

RFLP within the amplified PCR product. The presence and degree of conservation of restriction enzyme recognition sites was evaluated for individual wla genes in a pilot study (data not shown). As a result of this inventory, the enzymes HindIII, HhaI, DdeI, and NlaIII were chosen to digest the obtained 9.6-kb amplified amplicon from all Penner serotype reference strains. This resulted in RFLP profiles of which typical examples are shown in Fig. 2. Eleven distinct HindIII patterns, 30 HhaI patterns, 25 DdeI patterns, and 19 NlaIII patterns were detected. The combination of the HhaI and DdeI patterns resulted in 32 separate genogroups (LG1 to LG32) for the 61 reference Penner serotype strains, and this enzyme combination was the method of choice for the LG genotyping scheme (Table 3). In most cases, the HhaI patterns will decide which LG genogroup an unknown strain belongs to. DdeI patterns need only be tested if the HhaI pattern is not unique, such as for the patterns Hh3, 10, 20, 26, and 33. All obtained profiles are available at the website http://www.bh.rmit.edu.au/abbt/campylobacter/typing.html.



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  		FIG. 2. PCR-RFLP patterns of HhaI from part of reference HS serotype strains. Lane numbers in the figure indicate C. jejuni reference HS serotype strain numbers. Lane M, {lambda} DNA digested with PstI.

 

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  		TABLE 3. LG genotyping systema

 
This new typing scheme was then tested on 87 clinical C. jejuni strains, among which 80 strains were HS serotyped. This resulted in an additional 11 new LG genogroups, LG33 to LG43 (Table 3).

The results of the LG genotyping of the 80 HS serotyped clinical C. jejuni strains were compared with the Penner serotyping (Table 4). When two or more strains from the same Penner serogroup were typed, there was a correlation with the LG system, except for HS-4.


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  		TABLE 4. Comparison of LG and HS typing methods

 

   DISCUSSION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
As for other infectious agents, subtyping methods are required for Campylobacter spp. to recognize temporal and regional trends and to identify and recognize pathotypes. The most common phenotypic subtyping scheme for C. jejuni is the Penner serotyping system. This method was recently modified by Frost et al. (8) to improve the method and to make it less technically demanding. Despite this improvement, serotyping is still time consuming and costly because of the amount and numbers of the sera needed to be produced, maintained, and quality controlled. Although a number of genotyping methods have recently been established and are regarded as more advantageous than phenotypic methods due to better reliability, higher discriminatory power, better typeability, and general accessibility, serotyping methods still could not be replaced completely as they have been widely used for many years. The serological heterogeneity of C. jejuni strains is determined by variation in LPS structures for which the most likely molecular basis is DNA polymorphism in the genes encoding the LPS biosynthetic enzymes. Therefore, a molecular typing method has been developed based on the wla locus which combines the advantage of a simple and fast PCR-RFLP-based technique with a high typeability and a strong correlation to the HS serotyping scheme used in the past. The wla gene cluster, involved in LPS biosynthesis, is highly conserved in Campylobacter strains, and within this cluster, the galE and the wlaH genes show a high degree of similarity to genes in other gram-negative bacteria (9). Therefore, these genes are likely to be highly conserved among different C. jejuni strains and were used to design primers to amplify the intragenic region.

Our results show that the method of LG genotyping is specific for C. jejuni and C. coli and has a higher discriminatory power than the Penner serotyping method (Simpson's index is 0.872 for the LG typing method and 0.842 for the Penner typing method). Sixty-one reference strains representing different Penner serotypes of C. jejuni and C. coli and 87 clinical C. jejuni strains were included for LG analysis. All tested strains yielded a PCR product of consistent size (9.6 kb) that could be digested by the restriction enzymes HhaI and DdeI to achieve 100% typeability. The RFLP patterns have a reasonable size range which can be separated by a 1.5% midi agarose gel. The patterns are very easy to read and can be digitized for comparison between laboratories.

A total of 43 LG profile types were identified among the 61 reference HS serostrains of C. jejuni and C. coli and the 87 clinical C. jejuni strains. A comparison of the LG typing data of 80 C. jejuni strains with the Penner serotyping data showed, as expected, a strong association between these two typing methods. All strains belonging to Penner groups 3, 6, 9, 12, 19, 29, 31, and 45 shared their LG banding patterns with the respective Penner reference strains (Table 4). Notably, Penner group 19, which has been recognized to have a strong association with GBS, is recognized as a separate LG genotype with conserved banding patterns for the 9 clinical isolates tested, originating from different sources. Strains belonging to the Penner groups 1 and 2 had identical LG patterns for 95 and 84% of the investigated strains, respectively. In contrast, the predominant LG genotype of strains belonging to the HS-4 complex serogroup was only found in 38% of the strains tested. Penner serogroups 1, 2, 3, and especially 4, which together comprise a large proportion of clinical isolates in certain parts of the world, are not clonal but represent a genetically diverse population (2, 13, 14, 19, 27, 32). In this respect, the strong correlation between LG genotype and HS-1, HS-2, and HS-3 serotype is remarkable. The strains from the HS-4 group more often belonged to genotypes LG10, 28, or 34, than to LG2, which is the LG genotype for the HS-4 reference serotype strain. This indicates that the serotyping reference strain does not have the most common DNA polymorphism for this genetically diverse serogroup. In conclusion, we believe that this fast and simple method is a suitable alternative to serotyping as an application for typing clinical and food isolates of C. jejuni and as a method for facilitating epidemiological research of Campylobacter spp.

The added value of the proposed LG typing scheme to the genotyping schemes already existing for C. jejuni is the strong correlation to the classical HS serotyping scheme, which allows comparison with historical data. In addition, LG typing allows for the classification of strains that are nontypeable by serotyping, since such strains are likely to be LG typeable. The observed discriminatory power of LG is slightly higher than that of serotyping, especially for serotype HS-4. In conclusion, we believe that this fast and simple method is a suitable alternative to serotyping and a valuable addition to the genotyping methods available for typing clinical and food isolates of C. jejuni and facilitating epidemiological research of Campylobacter spp.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Irving Nachamkin for providing some of the clinical C. jejuni strains for this study. We also gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of diagnostic laboratories throughout South Australia in providing isolates for typing.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Dept. of Biotechnol. and Environ. Biol., Royal Melbourne Inst. of Technol. Univ., Bundoora W. Campus, Bldg. 223, Lvl. 1, Plenty Rd., Bundoora 3083 VIC, Melbourne, Australia. Phone: 61-3-992-57132. Fax: 61-3-992-57110. E-mail: shi.feng{at}rmit.edu.au. Back


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 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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Journal of Clinical Microbiology, May 2002, p. 1791-1797, Vol. 40, No. 5
0095-1137/02/$04.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/JCM.40.5.1791-1797.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



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